Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Globalisation ; Video games

I am sitting in a small coffee shop on Nanjing Road in the heart of Shanghai's central business district as I write this post. As I look around me the energy of this metropolis is palpable. There is a sense of optimism and a can-do attitude that is remarkably similar to what I experience in every vibrant economy worldwide. There is another common thread. Gaming is pervasive. Wherever I look, whether in the coffee shop or in the subway or bus station, people are enjoying video games and immersed in their phone, tablet, or laptop.Last week, I expounded on the first of three secular orces that I believe are changing the videogame industry and today seems more relevant than ever to discuss the second one: globalization. The global software market for video games was approximately $52 billion in 2012. In Just the last 8 years, the emerging markets have gone from 12% to 47% of the market size and are growing at a compounded annual rate of nearly 30%. While the growth is broad based, countr ies like China, Brazil and Russia are on a tear, growing upwards of 100% in categories like Android and iOS.In most of these markets, consoles are a very small art of gaming today, though that is also starting to change as even countries like China are re-evaluating long held policies on allowing consoles. As I look at technological and game play trends, it is my strong belief that the market for gaming is going to sustain this growth for many years to come and in most cases even accelerate. However, with globalization comes a very different set of technical challenges. Companies can't simply replicate their success in western markets with a â€Å"rinse and repeat† of existing strategies for new geographies.Companies that simply ranslate their products verbatim and release it into new markets will fail. To succeed, you have to think global but act local. What does this mean in the context of videogames? Each country is different in its gaming patterns, consumer behavior, infr astructure, commercial norms and local regulations. Different aspects of the game have to be tailored for local playing conditions as though the game was built from the ground up for that market.A few examples: New game content that has local relevance and appeal Architectural changes that cater to local infrastructure, such as accounting for expected network latencies and packet losses. Introduction of different business models such as free-to-play Respect for local commercial norms, such as Konbini in Japan or Boleto Bancario in Brazil Expansion of the backend platform to support local offers, promotions and pricing changes Even though videogames are prevalent around the world today, there are cultural nuances that are extremely important to react to when it comes to delivering digital entertainment and services.It's not Just about marketing products differently (which is also very important) but the technology backbone that goes into supporting these titles also needs to adjust f or he country or region you're in. Everything from payment systems, gameplay mechanics and monetization strategies could be different. One such example is Plants vs. Zombies, a spectacular tower defense game from PopCap that has a massive consumer base in North America.It has had remarkable success in China with its Great Wall edition which was released on mobile in China with local content, consumer data plans (26 and 36) and local network topology. Another example is FIFA Online 3 which was recently released in Korea and is based on the game mechanics of the popular FIFA 13 console game but tailored for the local market. It has already broken records with 2. 4 million players in Just the first four weeks since launch.It's a format that works better for that market and gives us the opportunity to deliver one of our core franchises to a new audience. Global connectivity has expanded the opportunities for our industry while also completely changing the demands on our technology infra structure. I have to be thinking global with every decision I make. My next post I'll address what I see as the final secular force – social connectivity. In the meantime, I'd love to hear how going global in business impacts your day-to-day.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

The Expansion of the Right to Vote throughout History

Throughout history, the right to vote has expanded and expanded. There are several examples of this in history, such as African Americans and women earning the right to suffrage. All of these movements stem down to the formation of the National Republicans, or Democrats. During Andrew Jackson’s presidency, this party made it possible for even the poorest man to gain the right to vote. However, this movement was the subject of much controversy, as many doubted the abilities of the â€Å"common man†.One side in this argument was the supporters of the Democrats. They argued that ownership of property should not determine the right to vote. In document one of the DBQ paper, Nathan Sanford, who supported Jackson, argued that not ownership of property, but a man’s morality, should give him the right to vote. A different perspective, but the same basic agreement, is that of a French nobleman named Alexis de Tocqueville. He stated that the heads of government were often completely talentless, and seemed to end up in their positions from wealthiness alone.These supporters definitely had their reasons to be for this movement, but there were many who had reasons to oppose it. In her cynical and brutally honest book â€Å"Domestic Manners of the Americans†, Frances Trollope recalls the election of 1828. She states that most people were overlooking that he was â€Å"in every way calculated to do honour to the office† and simply opposing him because Jackson represented a less wealthy, more realistic portion of America. She even went as far to say that Jackson won the election of 1828 solely for that reason.James Kent of New York stated that the property requirement was simply the price to pay for the privilege of voting. He called the poor lazy, and stated that the movement was just a way for the poor to â€Å"share the plunder of the rich†. Both sides definitely had their reasons, as these opinions show. As for my opinion, I definit ely support the movement. As for the supporters, I find next to no valid arguments against them other than â€Å"everyone’s poor for a reason†.And as I may agree with that statement to a certain extent, it does not validate the ignorant generalizations made by James Kent, calling the poor lazy and greedy (from what I’ve seen, it seems to be the other way around). As for Trollope, while it may be true that the reasons for Jackson’s support were unjust, it seems to happen on the wealthy party’s side just about as much as vice versa. However, as it has become clear by giving suffrage to blacks, women, and 18, 19, and 20 year olds, this movement still continues today, and isn’t ending anytime soon. The Expansion of the Right to Vote throughout History Throughout history, the right to vote has expanded and expanded. There are several examples of this in history, such as African Americans and women earning the right to suffrage. All of these movements stem down to the formation of the National Republicans, or Democrats. During Andrew Jackson’s presidency, this party made it possible for even the poorest man to gain the right to vote. However, this movement was the subject of much controversy, as many doubted the abilities of the â€Å"common man†.One side in this argument was the supporters of the Democrats. They argued that ownership of property should not determine the right to vote. In document one of the DBQ paper, Nathan Sanford, who supported Jackson, argued that not ownership of property, but a man’s morality, should give him the right to vote. A different perspective, but the same basic agreement, is that of a French nobleman named Alexis de Tocqueville. He stated that the heads of government were often completely talentless, and seemed to end up in their positions from wealthiness alone.These supporters definitely had their reasons to be for this movement, but there were many who had reasons to oppose it. In her cynical and brutally honest book â€Å"Domestic Manners of the Americans†, Frances Trollope recalls the election of 1828. She states that most people were overlooking that he was â€Å"in every way calculated to do honour to the office† and simply opposing him because Jackson represented a less wealthy, more realistic portion of America. She even went as far to say that Jackson won the election of 1828 solely for that reason.James Kent of New York stated that the property requirement was simply the price to pay for the privilege of voting. He called the poor lazy, and stated that the movement was just a way for the poor to â€Å"share the plunder of the rich†. Both sides definitely had their reasons, as these opinions show. As for my opinion, I definit ely support the movement. As for the supporters, I find next to no valid arguments against them other than â€Å"everyone’s poor for a reason†.And as I may agree with that statement to a certain extent, it does not validate the ignorant generalizations made by James Kent, calling the poor lazy and greedy (from what I’ve seen, it seems to be the other way around). As for Trollope, while it may be true that the reasons for Jackson’s support were unjust, it seems to happen on the wealthy party’s side just about as much as vice versa. However, as it has become clear by giving suffrage to blacks, women, and 18, 19, and 20 year olds, this movement still continues today, and isn’t ending anytime soon.

Monday, July 29, 2019

Importance of Correlation Analysis in Decision Making

National language. Language plays an important role in the process of fostering unity among the races. Thus, the government has made Malay as the national language of our country. National Language Act 1967 has been allocated the Malay language as the official language. Starting in 1970, the discussion between the leaders has gradually replaced English as the medium of instruction in schools.Governments also undertook a campaign to promote the use of Malay with the launch of â€Å"Gerakan Cintailah Bahasa Kebangsaan†. Unity is an essential element for a country to be more advanced. In order to improve the quality of a country in all aspect, the citizen playing the most important roles. For an example, Malaysia is independent with the unity of people of different races in 1957. This shows that a country will not be established without the true unity among the people.If one country has no unity where people is not trusting one another, the country will fall apart and lead to the the internal strife among the people. An dramatic example is the issue of the races riot happened on May 13,1969 in Malaysia. The internal conflict had caused 2000 people kill. This brings awareness to Malaysian that people without the true unity and the no trustworthy is capable to ruin a country. So we should turn our face to the sun and the shadows fall behind us.In order to avoid infighting among people, the spirit of unity should be planted in our souls. National language is important in every country as it is not only allow communication among the people but also increase the understanding of different ethnics among different races. National language plays an important role in the process of fostering unity among the races. This is because toleration and trustworthy among each other is needed to unite the people through understanding.

Marketing in the digital era Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Marketing in the digital era - Essay Example Employing effective marketing mix, competitive positioning and a wider media strategy are vital. Marketers can think and utilise these strategies in achieving successful business performance. The researcher analysed the way marketers can employ a marketing strategy that meets the expectations of customers. The marketing strategy can also provide marketers various advantages including increased financial savings and continuous engagement with customers. Marketers should focus on a strategy that can enable them to increase their financial savings and maintain their position in the competitive market. The researcher examined the way marketers can differentiate products and add value to their products. They should understand the effective distribution channels and media services effective for communicating about the available products in the market. Lastly, the essay revealed the way employing CRS model, segmentation strategy and understanding the need for cultural change are crucial. Th is is because they will enable marketers to maintain their position in the market. This is because resources are scarce; thus, the marketers may end up losing opportunities in case they mismanage the resources. Barney (1995, p. 42) asserts that an industry can defeat their rivals in case it can only create a difference that it can sustain. This is through employing an effective marketing strategy that can enable them to achieve a competitive advantage.... Electronic marketing is increasing because marketers want to achieve a competitive advantage in the competitive marketing cross the globe (Ataman, Berk, Harald and Carlf 2010, p. 871). Online marketing has become commonly used in marketing of brands; thus, marketers should change their ways of thinking and acting in order to maintain their position in the competitive market. Marketers should employ effective marketing mix and expand their brands beyond the media mix in order to widen their commitment with consumers. The wider media strategy and competitive positioning strategy are effective because they provide marketers various advantages, which include increased financial savings and continuous engagement with customers. In the marketing digital era, marketers should focus on a strategy that can enable them to increase their financial savings. Resource based view of the organisation is one of the ways that can enable the firm to utilise the scarce resources effectively in achieving their demanding goals (Fahy 2000, p.98). Organisation attributes include resources and capabilities vital for achieving a competitive advantage. Therefore, marketers should utilise them effectively in order to maintain their position in the market. This is because resources are scarce; thus, the marketers may end up losing opportunities in case they mismanage the resources. Barney (1995, p. 42)Â  asserts that an industry can defeat their rivals in case it can only create a difference that it can sustain. This is through employing an effective marketing strategy that can enable them to achieve a competitive advantage. Marketers should understand that an effective strategy is built on process; thus, they should design marketing strategies basing on the available

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Worksheet Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Worksheet - Article Example (5 pts) If the journal is independent, simply type â€Å"independent†. 7. Review the â€Å"About us† and the â€Å"Mission Statement† (statement of purpose) of the journal publication mentioned in question 4. If you located a scholarly society (per question 6), also review their mission and membership. Then, provide three reasons based on this review as to how you deem the information published or presented by the journal to be scientifically valid, accurate, and reliable. (10 pts) 8. Now that you have established that the information in your article is scientifically reliable (meaning that you can trust that it provides safe, useful health information for you) return to your URL (question 2) and read your article again for content. Type a 200-word summary of the content of your article without plagiarizing or quoting the article. Write solely in your own words. (12 pts) Research has shown that the ‘rotten egg’ gas known as hydrogen sulfide, also known as H2S, has been detected in the fluid of knee joints. The study compared amounts of hydrogen sulfide in those with two types of arthritis against subjects without arthritis. It was found that subjects with rheumatoid arthritis have significantly higher concentrations of hydrogen sulfide in their knee joints than subjects without rheumatoid arthritis. The research has opened the possibility that hydrogen sulfide could be used as a medication for those with inflammatory diseases. Further research is being conducted to figure out how to deliver safe levels of hydrogen sulfide to patients. Because anti-inflammatory drugs have many negative side-effects, delivery of hydrogen sulfide to those with inflammatory diseases would be a more natural option because hydrogen sulfide occurs naturally in the body. Rheumatoid Arthritis, or RA, is the most significant inflammatory disease. Thousands are diagnosed with RA each year and many people

Saturday, July 27, 2019

The Effect of Inflation on the Consumer and Money Markets Research Paper - 2

The Effect of Inflation on the Consumer and Money Markets - Research Paper Example The federal government realizes the impact inflation has on the elderly and in their social security system there is a safeguard protocol that protects the beneficiaries. The payments of social security are adjusted each year to offset the effects of inflation.   Another reason the elderly are affected a lot by inflation is that the elderly spend a lot of money on medical expenses. The inflation rate in the medical field is approximately 10%. The inflation varies by goods and industries. When inflation occurs in food prices the lower class is affected the most because poor people have limited income to pay to its food necessities. The amount of inflation in an economy depends on the country. In the United States, the inflation rate as of February 2011 was 2.1% (Tradingeconomics). Historically the United States has always had a low inflation rate. There are parts countries in this world that have been completely destabilized by the effects of inflation. A phenomenon in economics known as hyperinflation can destroy an economic system. Hyperinflation can be defined as extreme or excessive inflation. A country that is currently going through a hyperinflation crisis in Zimbabwe. Two other countries that have suffered from hyperinflation in the past are Argentina and Russia. In the past, the cost of living was much lower. We have heard stories about how our grandparents used to pay a few pennies for a can of coke or a pound of bread. Through the passage of time, things have gotten much more expensive. Despite lower wages, our ancestors had great wealth because they could buy more goods and services with less money. During those years owning land and homes was more accessible because prices were much lower. When inflation goes up in the United States the Federal Reserve can take measures to control inflation. This is called monetary policies. The current chairman of the FED is Ben Bernanke. Inflation is an economic variable that affects the lives of everyone. When inflation is low people enjoy a better standard of living in the long run because their money is not getting diluted due to inflation. In the United States, inflation is currently low at around 2%.

Friday, July 26, 2019

Effects Of Media On The UAE Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Effects Of Media On The UAE - Essay Example Now in this era of increasing media penetration how children are brought up is a lot different; their childhoods are spend playing with toy guns (no wonder this is where all the violence stems in) and as they grow up they become cruel young men who believe life is nothing but a war zone which can be conquered with their â€Å"toy guns† (Wellisch 2000). Television is that source of the media which affects our society most strongly. When I say strongly, I mean it because of a research by Emerson Statistics, 2000, show that on average a person who subscribes to cable in Dubai watches television more than 6 hours a day! Everyone knows of the success story of Dubai; it used to be a desert not until long ago, till the Sheikhs invested some money in developing this city and what you see now is one of the megacities of the world! Foreign media played an important change in this development of Dubai from a desert to a city, then a mega city and now eventually a media and fashion hub! T he effects foreign media has on the UAE are countless. It has changed peoples’ lifestyle, how to perceive things, what they study and how they study and even more their aspect towards life! Bryant, J., & Thompson, S. (2002). Fundamentals of media effects give this situation: An Arab wife, previously she used to sit in the home and settle all the household chores so that when her family came home in the afternoon, they could all spend quality time. As time passed, American television channels opened in UAE and that made the Arab women know about the American culture (where husband and wife both go to work). And now If you see an Arab wife in this era, they don’t perceive life as to staying at home and waiting for their family to come back while they settle their chores.

Thursday, July 25, 2019

American Art Education in 1980s Through Today (2012) Research Paper

American Art Education in 1980s Through Today (2012) - Research Paper Example The move to institute uniform art education program addressed issues such as teaching materials, teachers training, curriculum guide, and books among other issues. Previously, art education in America did not address issues like teacher training, which influence the system adopted by teachers in teaching art education. In 1980s, art curriculum for K-12 focused on progressive education and self-expression. Through this education, American technology education on art was founded, which is based on the cultural industrial education history (Foster 2). This focus addressed the need to develop art talent in children while nurturing their natural abilities. Art teachers taught painting, sculpture, drawing, ceramics, and other forms of art skills. The result of this approach was quite impressive. Many children were able to grasp the skills and produce aesthetic work. Another notable thing with revising of the art education curriculum in 1980s is that it revitalized art education. Art educat ion looked at history, traditional systems, and broader aspect of art to make art education interesting to pupils and the teachers. The 1980s curriculum stressed on art making while blending it with studies of art history, aesthetics, and criticism. The art education curriculum of 1980s did stress on visual art education. ... This argument led to the push for more realistic studies in art over the formal system. Notably, art education in 1990s has emphasized the need for visual art in all aspect of art education (Mary 5). Curriculum developed to cater for the needs of pupils and students in post primary schools address current issues. For instance, visual art stresses on current events or realities. In other words, the curriculum does not stress on abstract art. The 1990s art education curriculum identified the need to incorporate place based art education. This is a reform in art education since it exempts traditional aspect of art education in previous decades. Another important observation about art education in 1990s is that art education incorporated other disciplines such as history, current environmental events among others in the art curriculum (Keyon 2). Scholars and lovers of art argued that this approach gave the learner the ability to use art to solve current issues in the society. For instanc e, music art education takes place in special classes while addressing current events in the society. In 1990s, art curriculum has developed various degree programs in art, which address individual needs (Mary 7). Other than professional development programs introduced in 1990s, art studies have created room for students to choose from a wide range of programs. Art education development led to the visual culture experienced today in art schools. Educators and stakeholders in art emphasized on the use of technology in visual art. For instance, National Standard, which was introduced in 1995 as per the California Teaching Standards has become a top producer in weld wire and several industrial wire

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Is OIL a Resource Curse Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Is OIL a Resource Curse - Essay Example This is because the citizens are unable to account on the spending of the money derived from exporting oil. Additionally, the resource leads to unprecedented rate of conflict. In fact, the wealth of resources in any country appears to correlate with conflict. This is because government relies on resources and delinks itself from people. This arises due to lack of accountability that could have been achieved by taxing. However, such governments do not need to tax its people as oil generates enough resources to run the government. This makes the government unaccountable to its people. However, there are ways in which some of the government are solving the resource curse. This involves use of some of the resources generated to offer incentives to the citizens. Moreover, the money is also channelled to social welfare to cater for the aged and less privileged in the society. In addition, some governments have focused on ensuring there is accountability in the sector. This takes place through offering information about the nation revenue and expenditure (Stapleton n.d). Additionally, other governments are in the process of developing legislation to address transparency in the oil sector. All these initiatives are believed to offer solutions to resource curse

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Prophecies in The Odyssey and Oedipus the King Research Paper

Prophecies in The Odyssey and Oedipus the King - Research Paper Example One of the key purposes of using the prophecies is to reveal to the readers at the outset itself, the course, the work or the main protagonist will take. Although, it may reveal the crux of the plot, on the other level, it will heighten the curiosity of the readers regarding whether the prophecies will come true or how the prophecies will come true. Another key perspective of using prophecies is to state the fact that human lives will always be controlled by superior powers or external forces, without any chance of them controlling it. This perspective of prophecy was aptly used in the Greek works, Oedipus the King and The Odyssey. This paper will discuss how the lives of the main protagonists Oedipus and Odysseus were dictated by these prophecies, with Oedipus’ prophecies leading to his downfall and tragedy, while prophecies for Odysseus leading to success. Oedipus fate, it seems, has been sealed even before he is born, with the prophecy coming from Oracle of Apollo at Delphi. As King Laius and Jocasta did not have any children after many years of marriage, they consulted the Oracle at Delphi regarding their childlessness. The Oracle gave out the prophecy that if Jocasta bears a son, that son would kill her husband King Laius and will also marry her. This prophecy was recollected by Jocasta later, â€Å"An oracle once came to Laius declaring he was doomed/To perish by the hand of his own son, A Child that should be born to him by me† (Sophocles 51). To prevent his prophecy from actualizing only Oedipus was ordered to be killed. However, he survives and was cared by King Polybus of Corinth and his wife Merope, who raise him as their own. After hearing rumors that Polybus and Merope are not his real biological parents, he coincidently meets the same Oracle at Delphi to clarify his doubts. Without directly answering Oedipus’ question on parentage, the Oracle again repeats the earlier prophecy but in different words, from the perspective of Oedipus. Oedipus

Assesment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Assesment 2 - Essay Example In the health care setting for example, there are numerous forms of predicaments and this includes health care fraud. The sapping of financial resources in the health care system, along with several other consequences, problems associated with personnel development plans and shortage of competent staff are just few of the magnified issues. The concerns on fraud and abuse greatly affected the everyday life of health care personnel particularly the nurse practitioners; since these professionals are the â€Å"front liners† in terms of delivery of care. Nurse practitioners (NPs) can hardly go away from working in clinical environments; and this expose them further to fiscal issues of billing, reimbursement and revenue production issues. In other words, the described situation is somewhat stressful for them. Fraud is actually described as â€Å"any act, omission, expression, or concealment calculated to delude another individual,† Merriam-Webster Dictionary of Law stated. Medicare and other government funded health benefit programs are usually the targets of these schemes. Billing for needless or the double billing schemes, unperformed tests, and kickbacks are few of the most common fraudulent activity that burden most patients;this is reported by the Social Security Act, Section 1128C reiterates that (a) of the designed the Health Care Fraud as well as Program for Abuse Control Program (Department of Justice, 2000). There are several approaches to address concerns in an organization. One very important is the evaluation of the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, as well as opportunities. If limitations in the human and/or financial resources are identified, it may be a necessity to provide attention to the organizations opportunities through the use of phased approach. On the other hand, based on the Economic and Social Research Council Strategic Plan, (2009; p 5-7). Extensive consultations are very necessary to identify areas of strategic

Monday, July 22, 2019

English Language Teaching in Gulf Essay Example for Free

English Language Teaching in Gulf Essay Zafar Syed’s assertions about the TESOL challenges in Gulf are subjective reflection over the issue and he is unable to provide any verified or verifiable data and findings. He places all responsibility on the structural constraints i. e. contextual framework, human resource development, system and standards, and research and knowledge and paid less heed to other relevant and important dimension f the TESOL i. e. the constraints on the art of the students. He relies too much on the secondary sources but those secondary sources are also related to education and teaching general and has taken into consideration English language teaching particularly. To some extent citation of these secondary resources is relevant e. g. citation of Mograby to provides facts and figures about the unprecedented quantitative growth in education in UAE . (338) He then generalizes that this unprecedented growth has adverse effect on the teaching of Language. He describes that this unchecked growth impacted the planning and implementation of English teaching patterns and policies. (338) In the following paragraph, he is unable to support he preposition by any solid line of arguments, research study or verifiable facts and figures. He is unable to demonstrate that how this rapid growth in education industry has affected the teaching of language. It is more important to provide a socio-cultural context as well that deter or propel the teaching and learning of a language. He describes that â€Å"local students see no concrete link between English ability and communicative requirements†. Mr. Syed is correct in saying this as communicative important of any language in general and English language in particular is related to exposure of the students to other medium of communications. If the socio-cultural context is conservative and does not allow a student to participate in activities involving other communities and people, he will be unable to use his acquired language capacity and thus will consider it meaning less and futile. This will restrict English language teaching to academic activity only. But Mr. Syed does not provide why such perception is created and this issue can be tackled. The next constraint that Mr. Syed takes into account is human resource development. This part of the study is most powerful and relevant as Mr. syed evaluates the role of English language faculty development and describes an array of issues related to it. He rightly point out the important of the local Arab English language teachers. The pool of English language teachers in the whole region are comprised of various expatriates groups that do not possess enough knowledge â€Å"about the local socio-cultural communities and languages† (339). Syed accurately concludes hat this lack of knowledge about local socio-cultural context breed problems like teacher-students gap and this gap endangers effect English Language teaching. Foreign teachers are not well-capacitated to anticipate and delve deep into the socio-problems of the learners and hence can suggest remedies to these. Grammar Translation Method also requires an understanding of the local language and context in order to effectively implement this methodology. (Chastain, 1971. p. 131) Mr. Syed concludes that this ad-hocism in the hiring of contractual foreign faculty hinders the way to implement a more effective and locally suitable system as these temporary teachers are less motivated to make an in-depth evaluation of the system. Here r. Syed has recognized the sole cause of the problem that triggers a cause and effect phenomenon leading to the deterioration of the English Language teaching system in Gulf. Only a motivated and well-informed teachers can recognize the contextual important and shortcomings of language teaching and hence can formulate policies to reduce or eradicate these contextual barriers. Mr Syed has further taken in to consideration the systems and standards but he is unable to realize that only senior and seasoned English language teachers and professors can help designing and executing a viable system and standard for English language teaching. It is not something independent in itself. He emphasizes on the importance of research but it must be noted that research only come through established systems and qualified academia. So first there is dire need to develop faculty and establish a contextually modified system of instructions. This will ultimately lead the faculty to conduct research on appropriate issues pertaining to every facets of English language teaching. Despite various defects in his theoretical framework, he provides some excellent insights into Gulf English language teaching. In addition to his content, he had certain serious flaws in the style of his expression. He only comments on a specific issue briefly and then goes on to comment on another challenges faced by the English Language Teaching without elaborating the first one. The very first sentence of the study indicates that it has nothing to do with primary research as conducting interview of the ESL teachers to locate the challenges faced by them. Further, Syed has limited his study to UAE with a little reference to Saudi Arabia here and there. So this not only limits the scope of the study but indicates that relying on a particular country in the region, generalizations have been made about the whole region. Chastain, Kenneth. The Development of Modern Language Skills: Theory to Practice. Philadelphia: Center for Curriculum Development, 1971.

Sunday, July 21, 2019

Discussing The Knife Crime In Britain Criminology Essay

Discussing The Knife Crime In Britain Criminology Essay Section 1: The Problem of Knife Crime in Britain. In June 2006, 15 years old Alex Mulumbu after celebrating the end of his GCSEs exams became one more victim of Britains knife culture. The victim after he got off a bus with friends in Lambeth, south London had an argument with a larger group of teenagers (Woolcock, 2006). During the dispute members of the gang disappeared and returned armed with knives, baseball bats and hockey sticks. Alex was stabbed in the heart and was left lying in a pool of blood on the pavement (Verkaik, 2006). His father visited the scene of his sons killing where he stated to the media that Alex was a good boy and had nothing to do with knives and gangs (Sturcke, 2006). The case vignette above is a clear example of how knife crime is portrayed by the media. A teenager who is getting off a bus and it happens to get stabbed by the perpetrator. However, the reality of knife crime is not simply a black-white issue of good versus bad. The nature of such a problem is complicated and the responses towards it must therefore be multi-faceted (House of Commons). After all, if knife problem was that easy, it would have been solved already. One complexity is that the victims are not always good honest citizens who were in the wrong place at the wrong time. The victims are often victimized before and are also those who are carrying knives in the first place (and actually their own knife is used against them). (www.direct.gov.uk). Furthermore, the offenders and victims status in not always differentiated, since the victims carry knives because they are often linked to gangs or have some kind of affiliation with street culture. This, in turn, could mean that a significant proportion of stabbings relate to street violence (www.docstoc.com), and as Professor Brohi claims a very small proportion of knife crime victims are innocent people walking down the street who are stabbed (House of Commons). The media make knife crime even more complex as they often cloud peoples perception by generating moral panic and by giving the impression that knife crime is out of control (Albertazzi, 2010:473). This moral panic, in turn, leads to fear of crime and social disorganization. Knife crime is also complex in itself as it is a symbolic of lack of social control within societies. Knife crime looks unsolvable and as there is no connection between adults-teenagers (Hume, 2008), although it involves young people and shatters lives. In particular, knife crime in itself gives the impression that somehow it is a matter of young peoples world since teenagers are on their own, surviving on the streets (Asthana, 2008). Thus, those who do not live in that kind of environments (outsiders) can never understand. Finally, knife crime is complex because there is no answer to the question why teenagers carry knives. We do not know whether teenagers carry knives for self protection and because of the growing lack of trust in the ability of adults to protect them (Kelbie, 2003), or whether carry knives for things like respect knife carrying is thought to be largely driven by a concern for self protection or to enhance status (Muncie, 2009:36). Continuing the study I am going to produce a report divided into three key sections. The first will be the extent of knife crime in Britain. The second will look at the causes of knife crime and finally the third will produce some initiatives dealing with knife crime. Section 2: The Extent of Knife Crime in Britain Furthermore, knife crime is very complicated in terms of defining whether it is a predominantly black problem. The media often give the impression that all crimes are committed by black people and therefore, make people adopt misconceptions (Wright, 2008). Hence, it is important to note that even though the issue looks like it is black in London and the South-East (www.london.gov.uk), at the same time there are evidence that suggesting that in the North-East (i.e. Glasgow, Scotland, Manchester) the problem is white (House of Commons). As a result, it might be predominantly a black issue in London but certainly not in other places. Given that, I have concluded that the issue of carrying knives has little to do with being black or white, but on the contrary, it has to do with being young and male (Muncie, 2009). Also, knife crime is complicated in terms of definition, since there is no clear Home Office clear definition of knife crime. According to that, the phrase knife crime was adopted by the media and is now popularly used to refer primarily to stabbings but also to the illegal carrying of knives by young people (House of Commons). Hence, since there is no clear definition, then, it is likely for the numerous to use different definitions in order to create statistics and therefore generate more complexity. Furthermore, knife crime is also complicated because there are too many different types of statistics (too much statistical data). In particular, there are statistics for knife crime from the hospital, the police, the British Crime Survey and finally the MORI (House of Commons, 2009). Each of these sources, measure different samples and different places (regions) in the country and therefore, it is too complicated to understand what is happening (Summers, 2008). For example, hospitals define knife crime when somebody has severe internal injuries as a result of knife penetration, whereas police define it when someone is carrying a knife (House of Commons) Furthermore, trying to measure knife crime is, again, difficult because there is also the dark figure of crime. Therefore, this hidden crime makes statistics themselves problematic (Messerschmidt, 1993). However, above all else, the complexity of knife crime is related to the media. The media manipulate the statistics and distort peoples perceptions about knife crime, since they are powerful and so pervasive in terms of their ability to create views (Jewkes, 2004). One distortion is that knife crime is predominantly a black issue. Given that, even though evidence suggest that knife crime is also a white problem (in other areas), yet, the media continue the misrepresentation constantly accusing blacks (scapegoats). According to that, I believe that this misrepresentation leads to moral panic which, in turn, somehow makes the statistics go up. In other words, since teenagers interfere with the media (moral panic), then, they may feel fear of the streets and therefore through self fulfilling prophecy, start carrying knives for self protection. Hence, there is an interaction-interrelationship between the statistics and knife crime (Newburn, 2007). Regarding to the problems associated with knife crime measurement, I believe that data should be collected through a regional setting and this is for two reasons. Firstly, because as indicated, knife crime is not a specific cultural issue of Blacks, and secondly, because the measurement of such a complex issue through national settings, inevitable will generate too many complicated statistical data. Furthermore, and as Young (1988) argues, national settings tend to miss some important elements in the distribution of victimization (Newburn, 2007). Hence, I suggest a regional setting both in areas with the highest knife-crime rates, but also to areas where crime rate is low. This, in turn, we will help us understand why it is black issue in some places whereas white in other. Equally important is to collect data using qualitative approaches, since it would be more beneficial to understand the lived experiences of those who carry knives (rationale behind knife crime) instead of how many carry a knife (What would be the point of knowing that 4000 are carrying knives after all?). For example, it would be very interesting to understand how knife crime is perceived and interpreted by the juvenile delinquents (ethnography research) and thus, find out why they carry knives. This way, more evidence will come up such as whether knife crime relates to Londons (for example) rates of poverty, neglect, unemployment and deprivation (House of Commons). Section 3: The Causes of Knife Crime in Britain. The social learning theory is one of the most enduring approaches among the criminological theories that underscore the nature of peoples involvement in social relationships. Sutherland, considered previous criminological theories and argued that anyone in society can be trained to adopt and follow patterns of crime and deviation (Colombo, 2009). In accordance to Sutherlands differential association conception, the prestige of criminals, the duration of contact between offenders-potential offenders and the frequency of interactions with criminal offenders, are all contributing factors in an individuals likeliness to occupy criminal activities. Sutherland also suggested that attendance with the development of criminal behaviours in social groups, for instance rough and tough attitudes, boosts the individuals propensity to interiorize criminal attitudes. Social learning therefore, links to the causes of knife crime as well as links to masculinity and rational choice perspectives. According to differential association concept, boys are growing up to be men. This process of affirming masculinity promotes boys to develop a public persona (an exterior) of being tough, macho and fearless. In the context of knife crime this means that men have to be risk takers, aggressive and support their competitive nature (i.e. territoriality). Boys, if lose their reputation in front of peers and someone undermines their masculinity, in turn, have to regain this reputation by carrying knives and using them in front of their mates. Thus, since they learn masculinity (via social learning), they learn to behave accordingly to this social role (masculinity) and therefore, act out like men (tough, aggressive). Finally, in terms of applying that to a knife crime, they make the ultimate decision (rational choice) on whether to carry knives by weighing the benefits (status, respect) against the risks (get stabbed, get caught). To conclude, I believe that there is a link between masculinities and social learning as what seems to be happening today, is that street culture (knife crime) is becoming masculine culture (i.e. through rap music) (Newburn, 2007). However, even though differential association theory is one of the most enduring theories about crime, yet, there are some difficulties in explaining knife crime. First of all, according to the first principle of differential association theory, criminal behaviour is learnt (Colombo, 2009). If that is the case, I believe that we have to critically question, how did the first teacher learnt the knife techniques (i.e. hide a knife, disposal once used), so that to pass this knowledge to others? Hence, differential association theory fails to explain the origins of knife crime, since there are no origins. Furthermore, there are no real empirical evidence of links between learning and knife crime. For example, differential association theory does not explain why in similar circumstances, (balance of favorable-unfavourable definitions) some individuals choose to carry a knife whereas others do not. Moreover, social learning theory fails to explain why teenagers develop to associate with those who carry knives. Instead, it focuses more on the peer influence and not on peer selection. Additionally, differential association, supports that all criminal acts are rational (maximase profit-minimise loss) and systematic. However, it fails to explain the spontaneous, wanton acts of violence, which have little purpose or utility (Siegel, 2004). Finally, it is very difficult for social scientists to measure such vague variables like excess of definitions favourable to law violation (Colombo, 2009). Section 4: Towards the Reduction of Knife Crime in Britain. The Tackling Knives Action Programme (TKAP) is a multi-million-pound venture, against knife crime. Its main purpose is to limit the carrying of knives and serious stabbings among teenagers aged between13-19. It involves five government departments and 16 police forces (www.homeoffice.gov.uk). However, Tackling Knives Action Programme (TKAP) has some important limitations in relation to the data, since the recorded crime, especially the less violent, can be affected by changes in police activity and public reporting to the data. Furthermore, there is a lack of comparison statistics in many areas. Finally, TKAP faced the heterogeneity of the forces (www.homeoffice.gov.uk). Another anti-knife policy that has been introduced is via legislation to forbid the sale of knives to anyone under the age of 18. Additionally, Police Operations like Blunt and Shield involve the rapid and random deployment of metal detectors in public places such as stations, schools and so forth. The aim of the policy is to identify and arrest anyone carrying a knife (www.insight-security.com). However, both the restriction of knives sales under- 18s, as well as the deployment of metal detectors fails to tackle the problem, since kitchen knives for instance, would still be widely available. Hence, it is more a problem of education, rather than access to knives. Furthermore, metal detectors may be not detecting all knives, as knives can be easily hidden and disposed once used. My opinion about tackling of knife crime is that one organization alone cannot end this issue. Given that, I suggest that the main aim of all anti-knife crime initiatives should be to increase the definitions against knife-crime (rational choice theory) so that young people understand that carrying knives is immoral but most of all, it is risky (maximize cost, minimize benefit). Furthermore, I support that the best anti knife-crime policy would be to educate the teenagers about this problem (social learning theory). Hence, young people could learn about the consequences of carrying knives at an early age through a mandatory module (i.e. weapon awareness) at schools. Furthermore, I believe that the best initiative to stop knife culture would be if parents (especially the fathers) could show their boys that carrying knives has nothing to do with being a man (masculinity theory). As a conclusion, I argue that Alexs case highlights the need for the authorities to recognize that educating both teenagers and families from an early age is crucial in order to tackle knife crime. Concisely, I have concluded that knife crime is very complex issue because of many reasons. The main one surely is because there are lots of statistical data. Additionally knife crime is complex because the media create moral panic and thus does not help. Moreover I have concluded that knife crime is not a black issue but a knife issue and thus, anti knife policies should redirect their focus on the rationale behind knife crime. Ultimately, I would like to try to give an explanation of what could have might happen in the case vignette. Alex could have been probably to the enemys territory and showed disrespect on the other boys. He threatened the teenagers with his knife and made them run away. Then, the other boys went to another estate, took knives and returned back in order to regain their reputation and status. They have learnt (social learning) that men never back out (masculinity) and finally, they have made the ultimate decision to take the risk and stab Alex (rational choice).

Saturday, July 20, 2019

Synopsys For Physical Design Of Asic Computer Science Essay

Synopsys For Physical Design Of Asic Computer Science Essay IC Compiler is the software package from Synopsys for Physical Design of ASIC. It provides necessary tools to complete the back end design of the very deep submicron designs. The inputs to the IC Compiler are: a gate-level netlist which can be from DC Compiler or third-party tools, a detailed floorplan which can be from previous Design Planning through IC Compiler or other third-party tools, timing constraints and other constraints, physical and timing libraries provided by manufacturer, and foundry-process data. IC Compiler generates a GDSII-format file as output ready for tape out of the chip. In addition, it is possible to export a Design Exchange Format (DEF) file of placed netlist data ready for a third-party router. IC Compiler uses a binary Synopsys Milkyway database, which can be used by other Synopsys tools based on Milkyway. [16] 4.2 User Interfaces IC Compiler can be used either with Shell interface (icc_shell) or with Graphical user interface (GUI). Shell interface is the command-line interface, which is used for batch mode, scripts, typing commands, and push-button type of operations. Graphical user interface (GUI) is an advanced graphical analysis and physical editing tool. Certain tasks, such as very accurately displaying the design and providing visual analysis tools, can only performed from the GUI. Also tool command language (Tcl), which is used in many applications in the EDA industry, is available to IC Compiler. Using Tcl, you can write reusable procedures and scripts. The IC Compiler design flow is an easy-to-use, single-pass flow that provides convergent timing closure. Figure 4.1 shows the basic IC Compiler design flow, which is centered around three core commands that perform placement and optimization (place_opt), clock tree synthesis and optimization (clock_opt), and routing and postroute optimization (route_opt). [16] icc1 Figure 4.1 IC Compiler Design Flow [21] For most designs, if the place_opt, clock_opt, and route_opt steps are followed, IC Compiler will provide optimal results. You can use IC Compiler to efficiently perform chip-level design planning, placement, clock tree synthesis and routing on designs with moderate timing and congestion challenges. To further improve the quality of results for your design you can use additional commands and switches for placement, clock tree synthesis, and routing steps that IC Compiler provides. IC Compiler design flow involves execution of following steps: 1. Set up and prepare the libraries and the design data. 2. Perform design planning and power planning. -Design planning is to perform necessary steps to create a floorplan, determine the size of the design, create the boundary and core area, create site rows for the placement of standard cells, set up the I/O pads. -Power planning, is to perform necessary steps to create a power plan to meet the power budget and the target leakage current. 3. Perform placement and optimization. IC Compiler placement and optimization uses enhanced placement and synthesis technologies to generate a legalized placement for leaf cells and an optimized design, which addresses and resolves timing closure issues for the provided design. You can supplement this functionality by optimizing for power, recovering area for placement, minimizing congestion, and minimizing timing and design rule violations. To perform placement and optimization, use the place_opt core command (or from GUI choose Placement menu and then Core Placement and Optimization sub-menu). 4. Perform clock tree synthesis and optimization. To perform the clock tree synthesis and optimization phase, use the command clock_opt (or choose Clock > Core Clock Tree Synthesis and Optimization in the GUI). IC Compiler clock tree synthesis and embedded optimization solve complicated clock tree synthesis problems, such as blockage avoidance and the correlation between preroute and postroute data. Clock tree optimization improves both clock skew and clock insertion delay by performing buffer sizing, buffer relocation, gate sizing, gate relocation, level adjustment, reconfiguration, delay insertion, dummy load insertion, and balancing of interclock delays. 5. Perform routing and postroute optimization. To perform routing and postroute optimization, use the route_opt core command (or choose Route > Core Routing and Optimization in the GUI). As part of routing and postroute optimization, IC Compiler performs global routing, track assignment, detail routing, search and repair, topological optimization, and engineering change order (ECO) routing. For most designs, the default routing and postroute optimization setup produces optimal results. If necessary, you can supplement this functionality by optimizing routing patterns and reducing crosstalk or by customizing the routing and postroute optimization functions for special needs. 6. Perform chip finishing and design for manufacturing tasks. IC Compiler provides chip finishing and design for manufacturing and yield capabilities that you can apply throughout the various stages of the design flow to address process design issues encountered during chip manufacturing. 7. Save the design. Save your design in the Milkyway format. This format is the internal database format used by IC Compiler to store all the logical and physical information about a design. [16] 4.3 How to Invoke the IC Compiler 1. Log in to the UNIX environment with the user id and password . 2. Start IC Compiler from the UNIX promt: UNIX$ icc_shell The xterm unix prompt turns into the IC Compiler shell command prompt. 3. Start the GUI. icc_shell> start_gui This window can display schematics and logical browsers, among other things, once a design is loaded. 4.4 Preparing the Design IC Compiler uses a Milkyway design library to store design and its associated library information. This section describes how to set up the libraries, create a Milkyway design library, read your design, and save the design in Milkyway format. These steps are explained in the following sections: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Setting Up the Libraries à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Setting Up the Power and Ground Nets à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reading the Design à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Annotating the Physical Data à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Preparing for Timing Analysis and RC Calculation à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Saving the Design 4.4.1 Setting Up the Libraries IC Compiler requires both logic libraries and physical libraries. The following sections describe how to set up and validate these libraries. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Setting Up the Logic Libraries: IC Compiler uses logic libraries to provide timing and functionality information for all standard cells. In addition, logic libraries can provide timing information for hard macros, such as RAMs. IC Compiler uses variables to define the logic library settings. In each session, you must define the values for the following variables (either interactively, in the .synopsys_dc.setup file, or by restoring the values saved in the Milkyway design library) so that IC Compiler can access the libraries: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ search_path Lists the paths where IC Compiler can locate the logic libraries. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ target_library Lists the logic libraries that IC Compiler can use to perform physical optimization. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ link_library Lists the logic libraries that IC Compiler can search to resolve references. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Setting Up the Physical Libraries: IC Compiler uses Milkyway reference libraries and technology (.tf) files to provide physical library information. The Milkyway reference libraries contain physical information about the standard cells and macro cells in your technology library. In addition, these reference libraries define the placement unit tile. The technology files provide information such as the names and characteristics (physical and electrical) for each metal layer, which are technology-specific. The physical library information is stored in the Milkyway design library. For each cell, the Milkyway design library contains several views of the cell, which are used for different physical design tasks. If you have not already created a Milkyway library for your design (by using another tool that uses Milkyway), you need to create one by using the IC Compiler tool. If you already have a Milkyway design library, you must open it before working on your design. This section describes how to perform the following tasks: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Create a Milkyway design library To create a Milkyway design library, use the create_mw_lib command (or choose File > Create Library in the GUI). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Open a Milkyway design library To open an existing Milkyway design library, use the open_mw_lib command (or choose File > Open Library in the GUI). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Report on a Milkyway design library To report on the reference libraries attached to the design library, use the -mw_reference_library option. icc_shell>report_mw_lib-mw_reference_library design_library_name To report on the units used in the design library, use the report_units command. icc_shell> report_units à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Change the physical library information To change the technology file, use the set_mw_technology_file command (or choose File > Set Technology File in the GUI) to specify the new technology file name and the name of the design library. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Save the physical library information To save the technology or reference control information in a file for later use, use the write_mw_lib_files command (or choose File > Export > Write Library File in the GUI). In a single invocation of the command, you can output only one type of file. To output both a technology file and a reference control file, you must run the command twice. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Verifying Library Consistency: Consistency between the logic library and the physical library is critical to achieving good results. Before you process your design, ensure that your libraries are consistent by running the check_library command. [16] icc_shell> check_library 4.4.2 Setting Up the Power and Ground Nets IC Compiler uses variables to define names for the power and ground nets. In each session, you must define the values for the following variables (either interactively or in the .synopsys_dc.setup file) so that IC Compiler can identify the power and ground nets: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ mw_logic0_net By default, IC Compiler VSS as the ground net name. If you are using a different name, you must specify the name by setting the mw_logic0_net variable. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ mw_logic1_net By default, IC Compiler uses VDD as the power net name. If you are using a different name, you must specify the name by setting the mw_logic1_net variable. 4.4.3 Reading the Design IC Compiler can read designs in either Milkyway or ASCII (Verilog, DEF, and SDC files) format. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reading a Design in Milkyway Format à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reading a Design in ASCII Format 4.4.4 Annotating the Physical Data IC Compiler provides several methods of annotating physical data on the design: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reading the physical data from a DEF file To read a DEF file, use the read_def command (or choose File > Import > Read DEF in the GUI). icc_shell> read_def -allow_physical design_name.def à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reading the physical data from a floorplan file A floorplan file is a file that you previously created by using the write_floorplan command (or by choosing Floorplan > Write Floorplan in the GUI). icc_shell> read_floorplan floorplan_file_name à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Copying the physical data from another design To copy physical data from the layout (CEL) view of one design in the current Milkyway design library to another, use the copy_floorplan command (or choose Floorplan > Copy Floorplan in the GUI). [16] icc_shell> copy_floorplan -from design1 4.4.5 Preparing for Timing Analysis and RC Calculation IC Compiler provides RC calculation technology and timing analysis capabilities for both preroute and postroute data. Before you perform RC calculation and timing analysis, you must complete the following tasks: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Set up the TLUPlus files You specify these files by using the set_tlu_plus_files command (or by choosing File > Set TLU+ in the GUI). icc_shell> set_tlu_plus_files -tech2itf_map ./path/map_file_name.map -max_tluplus ./path/worst_settings.tlup -min_tluplus ./path/best_settings.tlup à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ (Optional) Back-annotate delay or parasitic data To back-annotate the design with delay information provided in a Standard Delay Format (SDF) file, use the read_sdf command (or choose File > Import > Read SDF in the GUI). To remove annotated data from design, use the remove_annotations command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Set the timing constraints At a minimum, the timing constraints must contain a clock definition for each clock signal, as well as input and output arrival times for each I/O port. This requirement ensures that all signal paths are constrained for timing. To read a timing constraints file, use the read_sdc command (or choose File > Import > Read SDC in the GUI). icc_shell> read_sdc -version 1.7 design_name.sdc à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Specify the analysis mode Semiconductor device parameters can vary with conditions such as fabrication process, operating temperature, and power supply voltage. The set_operating_conditions command specifies the operating conditions for analysis. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ (Optional) Set the derating factors If your timing library does not include minimum and maximum timing data, you can perform simultaneous minimum and maximum timing analysis by specifying derating factors for your timing library. Use the set_timing_derate command to specify the derating factors. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Select the delay calculation algorithm By default, IC Compiler uses Elmore delay calculation for both preroute and postroute delay calculations. For postroute delay calculations, you can choose to use Arnoldi delay calculation either for clock nets only or for all nets. Elmore delay calculation is faster, but its results do not always correlate with the PrimeTime and PrimeTime SI results. The Arnoldi calculation is best used for designs with smaller geometries and high resistive nets, but it requires more runtime and memory. [16] 4.4.6 Saving the Design To save the design in Milkyway format, use the save_mw_cel command (or choose File > Save Design in the GUI). [16] CHAPTER 5: Design Planning 5.1 Introduction Design planning in IC Compiler provides basic floorplanning and prototyping capabilities such as dirty-netlist handling, automatic die size exploration, performing various operations with black box modules and cells, fast placement of macros and standard cells, packing macros into arrays, creating and shaping plan groups, in-place optimization, prototype global routing analysis, hierarchical clock planning, performing pin assignment on soft macros and plan groups, performing timing budgeting, converting the hierarchy, and refining the pin assignment. Power network synthesis and power network analysis functions, applied during the feasibility phase of design planning, provide automatic synthesis of local power structures within voltage areas. Power network analysis validates the power synthesis results by performing voltage-drop and electromigration analysis. [16] Figure 5.1 IC Compiler Design Planning [21] 5.2 Tasks to be performed during Design Planning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Initializing the Floorplan à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Automating Die Size Exploration à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Handling Black Boxes à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing an Initial Virtual Flat Placement à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Creating and Shaping Plan Groups à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Power Planning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Prototype Global Routing à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Hierarchical Clock Planning à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing In-Place Optimization à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Routing-Based Pin Assignment à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing RC Extraction à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Timing Analysis à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Timing Budgeting à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Committing the Physical Hierarchy à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Refining the Pin Assignment 5.3 Initializing the Floorplan The steps in initializing the floorplan are described below. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reading the I/O Constraints: To load the top-level I/O pad and pin constraints, use the read_io_constraints command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Defining the Core and Placing the I/O Pads: To define the core and place the I/O pads and pins, use the initialize_floorplan command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Creating Rectilinear-Shaped Blocks: Use the initialize_rectilinear_block command to create a floorplan for rectilinear blocks from a fixed set of L, T, U, or cross-shaped templates. These templates are used to determine the cell boundary and shape of the core. To do this, use initialize_rectilinear_block -shape L|T|U|X. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Writing I/O Constraint Information: To write top-level I/O pad or pin constraints, use the write_io_constraints command. Read the Synopsys Design Constraints (SDC) file (read_sdc command) to ensure that all signal paths are constrained for timing. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adding Cell Rows: To add cell rows, use the add_row command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Removing Cell Rows: To remove cell rows, use the cut_row command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Saving the Floorplan Information: To save the floorplan information, use the write_floorplan command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Writing Floorplan Physical Constraints for Design Compiler Topographical Technology: IC Compiler can now write out the floorplan physical constraints for Design Compiler Topographical Technology (DC-T) in Tcl format. The reason for using floorplan physical constraints in the Design Compiler topographical technology mode is to accurately represent the placement area and to improve timing correlation with the post-place-and-route design. The command syntax is: write_physical_constraints -output output_file_name -port_side [16] Figure 5.2 Floor Plan After Initialization [21] 5.4 Automating Die Size Exploration This section describes how to use MinChip technology in IC Compiler to automate the processes exploring and identifying the valid die areas to determine smallest routable, die size for your design while maintaining the relative placement of hard macros, I/O cells, and a power structure that meets voltage drop requirements. The technology is integrated into the Design Planning tool through the estimate_fp_area command. The input is a physically flat Milkyway CEL view. 5.5 Handling Black Boxes Black boxes can be represented in the physical design as either soft or hard macros. A black box macro has a fixed height and width. A black box soft macro sized by area and utilization can be shaped to best fit the floorplan. To handle the black boxes run the following set of commands. set_fp_base_gate estimate_fp_black_boxes flatten_fp_black_boxes create_fp_placement place_fp_pins create_qtm_model qtm_bb set_qtm_technology -lib library_name create_qtm_port -type clock $port report_qtm_model write_qtm_model -format qtm_bb report_timing qtm_bb 5.6 Performing an Initial Virtual Flat Placement The initial virtual flat placement is very fast and is optimized for wire length, congestion, and timing. The way to perform an initial virtual flat placement is described below. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Evaluating Initial Hard Macro Placement: No straightforward criteria exist for evaluating the initial hard macro placement. Measuring the quality of results (QoR) of the hard macro placement can be very subjective and often depends on practical design experience. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Specifying Hard Macro Placement Constraints: Different methods can be use to control the preplacement of hard macros and improve the QoR of the hard macro placement. Creating a User-Defined Array of Hard Macros Setting Floorplan Placement Constraints On Macro Cells Placing a Macro Cell Relative to an Anchor Object Using a Virtual Flat Placement Strategy Enhancing the Behavior of Virtual Flat Placement With the macros_on_edge Switch Creating Macro Blockages for Hard Macros Padding the Hard Macros à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Padding the Hard Macros: To avoid placing standard cells too close to macros, which can cause congestion or DRC violations, one can set a user-defined padding distance or keepout margin around the macros. One can set this padding distance on a selected macros cell instance master.During virtual flat placement no other cells will be placed within the specified distance from the macros edges. [16] To set a padding distance (keepout margin) on a selected macros cell instance master, use the set_keepout_margin command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Placing Hard Macros and Standard Cells: To place the hard macros and standard cells simultaneously, use the create_fp_placement command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Floorplan Editing: IC Compiler performs the following floorplan editing operations. Creating objects Deleting objects Undoing and redoing edit changes Moving objects Changing the way objects snap to a grid Aligning movable objects 5.7 Creating and Shaping Plan Groups This section describes how to create plan groups for logic modules that need to be physically implemented. Plan groups restrict the placement of cells to a specific region of the core area. This section also describes how to automatically place and shape objects in a design core, add padding around plan group boundaries, and prevent signal leakage and maintain signal integrity by adding modular block shielding to plan groups and soft macros. The following steps are covered for Creating and Shaping Plan Groups. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Creating Plan Groups: To create a plan group, create_plan_groups command. To remove (delete) plan groups from the current design, use the remove_plan_groups command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Automatically Placing and Shaping Objects In a Design Core: Plan groups are automatically shaped, sized, and placed inside the core area based on the distribution of cells resulting from the initial virtual flat placement. Blocks (plan groups, voltage areas, and soft macros) marked fix remain fixed; the other blocks, whether or not they are inside the core, are subject to being moved or reshaped. To automatically place and shape objects in the design core, shape_fp_blocks command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adding Padding to Plan Groups: To prevent congestion or DRC violations, one can add padding around plan group boundaries. Plan group padding sets placement blockages on the internal and external edges of the plan group boundary. Internal padding is equivalent to boundary spacing in the core area. External padding is equivalent to macro padding. To add padding to plan groups, create_fp_plan_group_padding command. To remove both external and internal padding for the plan groups, use the remove_fp_plan_group_padding command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adding Block Shielding to Plan Groups or Soft Macros: When two signals are routed parallel to each other, signal leakage can occur between the signals, leading to an unreliable design. One can protect signal integrity by adding modular block shielding to plan groups and soft macros. The shielding consists of metal rectangles that are created around the outside of the soft macro boundary in the top level of the design, and around the inside boundary of the soft macro. To add block shielding for plan groups or soft macros, use the create_fp_block_shielding command. To remove the signal shielding created by modular block shielding, use the remove_fp_block_shielding command. [16] 5.8 Performing Power Planning After completed the design planning process and have a complete floorplan, one can perform power planning, as explained below. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Creating Logical Power and Ground Connections: To define power and ground connections, use the connect_pg_nets command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adding Power and Ground Rings: It is necessary to add power and ground rings after doing floorplanning. To add power and ground rings, use the create_rectangular_rings command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Adding Power and Ground Straps: To add power and ground straps, use the create_power_straps command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Prerouting Standard Cells: To preroute standard cells, use the preroute_standard_cells command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Low-Power Planning for Multithreshold-CMOS Designs: One can perform floorplanning for low-power designs by employing power gating. Power gating has the potential to reduce overall power consumption substantially because it reduces leakage power as well as switching power. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Power Network Synthesis: As the design process moves toward creating 65-nm transistors, issues related to power and signal integrity, such as power grid generation, voltage (IR) drop, and electromigration, have become more significant and complex. In addition, this complex technology lengthens the turnaround time needed to identify and fix power and signal integrity problems. By performing power network synthesis one can preview an early power plan that reduces the chances of encountering electromigration and voltage drop problems later in the detailed power routing. To perform the PNS, one can run the set of following commands. [16] synthesize_fp_rail set_fp_rail_constraints set_fp_rail_constraints -set_ring set_fp_block_ring_constraints set_fp_power_pad_constraints set_fp_rail_region_constraints set_fp_rail_voltage_area_constraints set_fp_rail_strategy à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Committing the Power Plan: Once the IR drop map meets the IR drop constraints, one can run the commit_fp_rail command to transform the IR drop map into a power plan. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Handling TLUPlus Models in Power Network Synthesis: Power network synthesis supports TLUPlus models. set_fp_rail_strategy -use_tluplus true à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Checking Power Network Synthesis Integrity: Initially, when power network synthesis first proposes a power mesh structure, it assumes that the power pins of the mesh are connected to the hard macros and standard cells in the design. It then displays a voltage drop map that one can view to determine if it meets the voltage (IR) drop constraints. After the power mesh is committed, one might discover problem areas in design as a result of automatic or manual cell placement. These areas are referred to as chimney areas and pin connect areas. To Check the PNS Integrity one can run the following set of commands. set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_commit_check_file set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_chimney_file set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_chimney_file pns_chimney_report set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_hor_chimney_layers set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_chimney_min_dist set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_pad_connection file_name set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_report_pad_connection_limit set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_report_min_pin_width set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_hard_macro_connection file_name set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_check_hard_macro_connection_limit set_fp_rail_strategy -pns_report_min_pin_width à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Analyzing the Power Network: One perform power network analysis to predict IR drop at different floorplan stages on both complete and incomplete power nets in the design. To perform power network analysis, use the analyze_fp_rail command. To add virtual pads, use the create_fp_virtual_pad command. To ignore the hard macro blockages, use the set_fp_power_plan_constraints command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Viewing the Analysis Results: When power and rail analysis are complete, one can check for the voltage drop and electromigration violations in the design by using the voltage drop map and the electromigration map. One can save the results of voltage drop and electromigration current density values to the database by saving the CEL view that has just been analyzed. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reporting Settings for Power Network Synthesis and Power Network Analysis Strategies: To get a report of the current values of the strategies used by power network synthesis and power network analysis by using the report_fp_rail_strategy command. [16] 5.9 Performing Prototype Global Routing One can perform prototype global routing to get an estimate of the routability and congestion of the design. Global routing is done to detect possible congestion hot spots that might exist in the floorplan due to the placement of the hard macros or inadequate channel spacing. To perform global routing, use the route_fp_proto command. 5.10 Performing Hierarchical Clock Planning This section describes how to reduce timing closure iterations by performing hierarchical clock planning on a top-level design during the early stages of the virtual flat flow, after plan groups are created and before the hierarchy is committed. One can perform clock planning on a specified clock net or on all clock nets in the design. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Setting Clock Planning Options: To set clock planning options, use the set_fp_clock_plan_options command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Clock Planning Operations: To perform clock planning operations, use the compile_fp_clock_plan command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Generating Clock Tree Reports: To generate clock tree reports, use the report_clock_tree command. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Using Multivoltage Designs in Clock Planning: Clock planning supports multivoltage designs. Designs in multivoltage domains operate at various voltages. Multivoltage domains are connected through level-shifter cells. A level-shifter cell is a special cell that can carry signals across different voltage areas. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Performing Plan Group-Aware Clock Tree Synthesis in Clock Planning: With this feature, clock tree synthesis can generate a clock tree that honors the plan groups while inserting buffers in the tree and prevent new clock buffers from being placed on top of a plan group unless they drive the entire subtree inside that particular plan group. This results in a minimum of clock feedthroughs, which makes the design easier to manage during partitioning and budgeting. [16] 5.11 Performing In-Place Optimization In-place optimization is an iterative process that is based on virtual routing. Three types of optimizations are performed: timing improvement, area recovery, and fixing DRC violations. T

Feudalism :: Economy, History, Medieval Europe

Feudalism was created in the 9th century to eliminate social chaos and put social classes into order. Kings would also use it to expand their land. In return they would get protection, money, crops, and court duties. It also used in war times so that the Knights were obligated to fight. They centralized government to organize power and land. Feudalism was used to give out land by the king, organize social standing and in return get military services and protection. Feudalism was a set of political and military customs in medieval Europe that flourished between the 9th and 15th centuries (â€Å"Feudalism†). â€Å"The feudal system was not planned but, rather grew and developed in response to the social chaos that followed the fall of the Western Roman Empire. It provided order where there no longer was any, and it created new chains of command to replace those that were gone† ( James 58). Feudalism was introduced by King William I to England; this system organized power, land, and divided people into classes. The king, who owned all the land, gave some land to the church and to the barons in return for large blocks of land, the barons promised to fight for the king. Lent land to the knights and also common people (Susie 5). Feudalism test was also to defend against invaders (John 32). In the absence of centralized government authority, people look to personal relationships to bind society together. An individual with military pow er to offer gave his services to a feudal lord (Hay 170). Feudalism was created to put society, land, and power into order. In the economic system, landlords would force laborers to work on the lord’s manor to the lord’s profit (Medieval 65). Feudalism cultured many aspects of Europe that remained in place (Hay 39). â€Å"The feudal system was invented by 16th and 17th century lawyers and legal historians who were investigating the origins of the most common form of noble landholding in their own time (The Brown Reference Group 64). The feudal system was used in many aspects to making society and country simpler. Before the king would give out his land to the Barons, the barons would have to take an Oath of Fidelity. Nobel property was subdivided among a multitude of co sharers. The feudal system was founded upon a more and less complicated hierarchy of barons and vassals, united by ties of homage and fidelity by a sworn oath and by certain obligations which were defined in the contract.

Friday, July 19, 2019

Definition Description of Central Processing Unit :: essays research papers fc

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is a chip, containing a microprocessor, at the heart of most every modern computing electronic. A microprocessor is a small integrated circuit or chip, comprised of silicon and transistors, which interprets electrical impulses, performs operations on the electrical impulses, and sends the impulses to another device. The transistors are simple switches that turn on and off, allowing the electrical impulses through when on or ‘open’.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Microprocessors are very small. They can range in size from a few millimeters, to an inch on one side. The larger can contain tens of millions of transistors that have been carved into its surface by very precise machines. The wires connecting transistor to transistor in modern personal computer microprocessor are only 0.18 microns thick, while the human hair is 100 microns thick.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Central Processing Unit in most computers is about two inches by two inches and about two millimeters thick. They house the microprocessor in their core where it is connected to a number of conducting pins used for inputs and outputs. The CPU is larger than the microprocessor for many reasons, a few being that as the operations are conducted in the microprocessor they create heat and heat is more easily dissipated over a larger area, and that in early computer they same microprocessor was moved from one computer to another and so it was easier to move a larger more rigid object than the smaller, more fragile microprocessors. This also makes it easier for manufactures of parts that will utilize a microprocessor in that they can make a socket for the CPU’s pins to fit into instead of having to install each microprocessor manually.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Much like the human brain, the CPU takes information from various inputs, such as a keyboard or mouse, like our brain takes from our eyes, hands, tongue, and nose, and interprets them into different meanings and determines an appropriate response. At the core of a CPU are logic gates that do basic mathematical functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and interpreting of signals for the rest of the computer to understand. All communication done inside the CPU are interpreted in computer language know as binary. The only letters or numbers in binary are 1 and 0, represented as electrical signals, on and off. The CPU takes these electrical impulses, reads where they are supposed to go, and sends them to their destination, just like our

Thursday, July 18, 2019

On the Maintenance of a Small Business Essay

Creative Cuisine Concepts is a small business run by Sharon F. Johnson, employing twenty five staff members, and serving fifteen hundred meals at one of the cafeterias of America Hondo Motor Co. The company was going through severe financial trouble with its mounting debt, inability to make payments to vendors, and mismanagement of financial accounts. Johnson’s business partner left the company, and so she had to cash out her 401(k) retirement savings to save her small business. She also had to borrow money from the small inheritance of her husband so as to maintain her business. Nevertheless, the small business remained in financial trouble. This was before Johnson was advised by her mentor at American Honda to seek help for the financial statements of her small business. Subsequently, the lady hired an accountant for her business and opted for an accounting software program in place of the paper-based system. She also began to take a training course, sponsored by the Los Angeles chapter of the National Assn. of Women Business Owners, to improve her business and leadership skills. Johnson’s failing company began to recover soon after. She expects her business to breakeven in the near future. With the results that she has achieved thus far, she has additionally planned to grow her business from $1. 5 million to $50 million in revenue (Zwahlen). Zwahlen’s article, â€Å"Recovering from Financial Turmoil† about Creative Cuisine Concepts, describes many of the challenges faced by small businesses that are mentioned in the textbook. When Johnson’s business partner left the company, she became a sole proprietor of Creative Cuisine Concepts facing personal financial liability for all business debts. Moreover, the textbook mentions that the owners of small businesses have to be rather creative so as to maintain their businesses in the face of trials, such as mismanagement and cash flow problem. Johnson had to be rather innovative to save her business from the turmoil that it faced. She had to borrow from her husband’s inheritance, and cash out her retirement savings plan. Also according to the textbook, this is the usual route taken by the owners of small businesses who must use up their personal funds to maintain their companies. As compared to public companies, it is difficult for privately owned businesses to raise funds. Lastly, the textbook mentions management problems at small businesses that do not have the funds to hire a large number of competent people. Johnson had to take a business and leadership course to enhance her skills. The course was sponsored by an association of business women, who are known to head a large number of small businesses in the United States, according to the textbook. In my opinion, Johnson should also approach the Small Business Administration (SBA) to help her business meet its new goal of raising $50 million in revenue. As a matter of fact, the owner of the small business should have approached the SBA at the time her business was going through severe financial trouble. SBA could have provided her with a guarantee for a small business loan from a bank or private lender. It could also have helped her obtain a microloan. Furthermore, there are Small Business Investment Companies that Johnson could have approached. Although her creativity to gather the much-needed funds, apart from her motivation to gain new skills and put a new financial system into place must be applauded – the assistance of SBA could have saved her from the worries that she faced.

Mental Health Care for Latin Americans Essay

purloin The Hispanic world in the join States has rapidly incr eternal restd over the lastly decade and is underrepresented and c argond for in amiable headness services. By understanding(a) their nuance and information astir(predicate) the environ handst they plump in therapists potty better meet the patient roles desires. This paper covers dia continuing content, Family structure, Education, order of Psychiatric Disorders signs, and what to do as a therapist for Hispanic/Hispanic clients. besides discussed testament be roughly explore showing patterns of moral s sound upness changes among Hispanics that were innate(p) in the States and those that were born(p) in S step to the foreh America.This paper shouldnt end your pursual in this field of force just now serve as a motivator for except education. Mental wellness Cargon for Latin Ameri rats and Hispanic Ameri assholes When nurture to counsel Latin/Hispanic Americans it is pregnant to know a few fa cts round their culture and order of genial indisposition. at that side argon a few pagan bonds divided be Latin/Hispanic Americans. unmatchable of the biggest bonds is the Spanish lyric poem. The Spanish langu get along and culture atomic number 18 putting surface bonds for to a great extent Hispanic Americans, regardless of whether they trace their pipe field of operation to Africa, Asia, Europe, or the Americas.The immigrant arrive is an otherwise common bond. Nevertheless, Hispanic Americans ar real nonuniform in the circle of their migration and in other characteristics. To understand their kind wellness needs, it is grave to examine both(prenominal) the overlap and whimsical comes of diverse collections of Hispanic Americans. single of the approximately distinguishing characteristics of the Hispanic/ Latin American universe of discourse is its rapid growth. In the 2000 census the fleck of Hispanics counted rose to 35. 3 cardinal, roughly tin ge to the turning of African Americans (U. S. enumerate Bureau, 2001a).In fact, census projections evoke that by 2050, the number of Latinos will increase to 97 million this number will constitute well-nigh one-fourth of the U. S. population. Projections for the isotropy of Hispanic spring chicken atomic number 18 even naughtyer. It is predicted that n previous(predicate) leash of those under 19 historic period of age will be Hispanic by 2050 (Spencer & Hollmann, 1998). Persons of Mexican innovation comprise the largest proportion of Latinos (almost ii-thirds), with the remaining third distri furthered primarily among persons of Puerto Rican, Cuban, and pro put together American origin, (U.S. census Bureau, 2001b).It is no cleanorthy that nearly two-thirds of Hispanics (64 %) were born in the united States (U. S. number Bureau, 2000c). Another common bond is migration or immigration. Puerto Ricans began arriving in large be on the U. S. main nation after World W ar II as Puerto anti-racketeering laws population increase. High unemployment among displaced uncouth workers on the island also led to large-scale emigration to the mainland linked States that continued through the 1950s and 1960s.In the 1980s, the migration pattern became to a greater extent circular as much Puerto Ricans chose to return to the island. One typical characteristic of Puerto Rican migration is that the irregular Organic Act, or Jones Act, of 1917 granted Puerto Ricans U. S. citizenship. Although Cubans came to the unify States in the second one-half of the 19th century and in the early break-dance of the 20th century, the sterling(prenominal) influx of Cuban immigrants began after Fidel Castro overthrew the Fulgencio Batista brass in 1959.First, an elite group of Cubans came, but immigration continued with people fashioning the dangerous crossing to the unite States by makeshift watercraft (Bernal & Shapiro, 1996). slightly of these immigrants, such a s the improve professionals who came to the f only in States during the early phase of Cuban migration, rise up beat well established, where-as others who arrived with few stinting resources atomic number 18 less so. Unlike immigrants from several other countries, numerous Cubans restrain gained access to citizenship and federal official realise through their spot as semi govern genial refugees. telephone exchange Americans ar the newest Latino subgroup in the get together States. umpteen Central Americans fled their countries por la situacion, a phrase that bushels to the political terror and atrocities in their homelands. Although the busticularised neighborly, historical, and political contexts differ in El Salvador, Guatemala, and Nicaragua, conflicts in those countries led to a significant immigration of their citizens. About 21 sh argon of foreign-born Central Americans arrived in the unify States amid 1970 and 1979, and the bulk (about 70 %) arrived betw een 1980 and 1990 (Farias, 1994).The circumstances that spend a pennyd various Hispanic groups to migrate greatly influence their run through in the United States. Cubans fled a Communist government, and, as a result, the U. S. Government has provided support through refugee or entrant status, work permits (Gil & Vega, 1996), and citizenship. More than half (51 %) of Cuban immigrants stand become U. S. citizens, compargond to just 15 pct of Mexican immigrants (U. S. Census Bureau, 1998). Puerto Ricans, whether born on the mainland or in Puerto Rico, are by definition U.S. citizens and, as a result, fork up access to government-sponsored support services. However many Central American immigrants are not recognized as political refugees, despite the fact that the war- connect damage and terror that preceded their immigration whitethorn place them at full(prenominal) risk for post-traumatic puree discommode (PTSD) and whitethorn make valuation account to their new home more difficult. Many Latinos who arrive without proper catalogueation engage difficulty obtaining jobs or advancing in them and comprise with the chronic fear of deportation.Finally, many Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Central Americans, and late Cuban immigrants come as unskilled laborers or displaced agricultural workers who lack the complaisant and economic resources to ease their adjustment. Hispanics are highly concentrated in the U. S. Southwest In 2000, 60 portion sufferd in five southwest States (calcium, Arizona, unseasoned Mexico, Colorado, and Texas). Approximately half of all Hispanic Americans live in two States, California and Texas (U. S. Census Bureau, 2001b).While many Southwestern Latinos are recent immigrants, others are posterity of Mexican and Spanish good dealtlers who lived in the grunge originally it belonged to the United States. Some of these descendants, in particular those in parvenu Mexico and Colorado, refer to themselves as Hispanos. More recent i mmigrants from Mexico and Central America are drawn to the Southwest beca use of its law of proximity to their home countries, its employment opportunities, and its established Latino communities, which can financial aid them, find jobs. out of doors the Southwest, New York, Florida, and Illinois are home to the largest concentrations of Hispanics.New York has 8. 1 share, Florida, 7. 6 part, and Illinois, 4. 3 percent of all the Latinos estimated to reside in the United States in 2000 (U. S. Census Bureau, 2001b). two-thirds of Puerto Ricans on the mainland live in New York and New Jersey, and two-thirds of Cuban Americans live in Florida (Population Reference Bureau, 2000). Although specialised subgroups of Latinos are associated with specific geographical regions, weighty demographic shifts begin resulted in the change magnitude visibility of Latinos throughout the United States.From 1990 to 2000, Latinos more than doubled in number in the following sestet states Arkans as (170 %), Nevada (145 %), north-central Carolina (129 %), Georgia (120 %), Nebraska (108 %), and Tennessee (105 %) (U. S. Census Bureau, 2000c). Of the six States, Nevada is the save one located in a region with traditionally high concentrations of Latinos. Thus, in addition to growing in numbers, Hispanic Americans are spreading throughout the United States. Latinos are very much referred to as family oriented (Sabogal et al. , 1987). It is weighty to timber that familism is as much a reflection of societal processes as of cultural pattern (Lopez & Guarnaccia, 2000).Specifically, the shared experience of immigrating to a new land or of experiencing difficult social conditions in ones homeland can promote adherence to family ties. In many cases, family connections facilitate survival and adjustment. The importance of family can be seen in Hispanic spiritedness arrangements. Although family characteristics vary by Latino subgroups, as a whole, Latinos, like Asian Americans and peaceable Islanders, are most credibly to live in family households and to the lowest degree likely to live alone.In addition, children (especially the females) tend to remain in the family until they marry Overall, Hispanics be possessed of less testis education than the discipline average. Of Latinos over 25 years of age, wholly(prenominal) 56 percent consent receive from high tutor, and only 11 percent defend graduate from college. soilally, 83 percent and 25 percent of the equivalent age group feel gradatory from high civilise and college independently (U. S. Census Bureau, 2000b). Hispanics educational attainment is tie in to to their place of birth.In 1999, only 44 percent of foreign-born Hispanic givings 25 years and sr. were high school graduates, compared to 70 percent of U. S. -born Hispanic adults (U. S. Census Bureau, 2000b). The dropout rate for foreign-born Hispanics ages 16 to 24 is more than twice the dropout rate for U. S. -born Hispanics i n the same age range (Kaufman et al. , 1999). A recent choose of middle school Latino students questions why foreign-born adolescents and adults take away the worst educational outcomes (C. Suarez-Orozco & M. Suarez-Orozco, 1995).The line of business think that recent immigrants from Mexico and El Salvador had at least the same, or in most cases greater motivation to achieve than white or U. S. -born Mexican American students. The educational achievement of tercet of the main Hispanic subgroups reveals further variability. Cubans have the highest percentage of formally educated people. Of persons over 25 years of age, 70 percent of Cuban Americans have graduated from high school, whereas 64 percent of Puerto Ricans and 50 percent of Mexican Americans have graduated from high school (U. S.Census Bureau, 2000d).Moreover, one-fourth of Cuban Americans have graduated from college, which is identical to the college get-go rate of Americans overall. In stemma, Puerto Rican and Me xican-origin adults have set about college graduation range, 11 percent and 7 percent respectively. Although Latinos as a group have vileer educational outcomes than other ethnic groups, there is sufficient variability to bear hope for them to catch up. Another shared neighborhood is income. The economic status of three of the main subgroups parallels their educational status.Cuban Americans are more affluent in standing than Puerto Ricans and Mexican Americans, as reflected in median(prenominal) family incomes (Cubans, $39,530 Puerto Ricans, $28,953 Mexicans, $27,883), the percentage of persons downstairs the poverty line (Puerto Ricans, 31 % Mexicans, 27 % Cubans, 14 %) and the unemployment evaluate of persons 16 years and fourth-year (Puerto Ricans, 7 % Mexicans, 7 % Cubans, 5 %) (U. S. Census Bureau, 2000d). The certain income levels of the Latino subgroups are also related to the political and historical circumstances of their immigration.elite group Cuban immigrants have contributed in part to the relatively strong economic status of Cuban Americans. Their experience, however, stands in stark contrast to that of Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Central Americans, most of who came to the United States as unskilled laborers. Historical and sociocultural Factors That Relate to Mental Health Historical and sociocultural federal agents suggest that, as a group, Latinos are in great need of psychical health services. Latinos, on average, have relatively low educational and economic status.In addition, historical and social subgroup differences attain differential needs within Latino groups. Central Americans whitethorn be in particular need of psychical health services wedded the trauma experience in their home countries. Puerto Rican and Mexican American children and adults may be at a higher risk than Cuban Americans for cordial health capers, given their displace educational and economic resources. Recent immigrants of all backgr ounds, who are adapting to the United States, are likely to experience a different set of stressors than semipermanent Hispanic residents.Key Issues for Understanding the inquiry Much of our menstruum understanding of the psychogenic health status of Latinos, particularly among adult populations, is derived from epidemiologic studies of preponderance rank of genial maladys, diagnostic entities established by the diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM American Psychiatric Association, 1994). The advantage of foc utilise on rates of disorders is that such findings can be compared with and contrasted to findings from studies in other domains (e. g. , clinical studies) using the same diagnostic criteria.Although there are several advantages to examining DSM-based clinical data, there are at least three disadvantages. One demarcation is that individuals may experience colossal distraint-a level of mourning that disrupts their daily functioning-but the sympt oms associated with the tribulation fall short of a given diagnostic threshold. So, if only disorder criteria are utilise, many individuals need for psychic health care may not be recognized. A second disadvantage is that the current definitions of the diagnostic entities have little tractableness to take into account culturally simulate forms of distress and disorder.As a result, disorders in need of give-and-take may not be recognized or may be mislabeled. A third limitation is that most of the epidemiological studies using the disorder-based definitions are conducted in community household surveys. They overlook to acknowledge nonhousehold members, such as persons without homes or those who reside in institutions. Because of these limitations, it is important to go the review of seek on rational health needs to include not only studies that report on disorders but include high-need populations not usually include in household-based surveys.Mental Disorders Adults A st udy undercoat that Mexican Americans and white Americans had very resembling rates of psychiatric disorders (Robins & Regier, 1991). However, when the Mexican American group was separated into two sub-groups, those born in Mexico and those born in the United States, it was constitute that those born in the United States had higher rates of embossment and phobias than those born in Mexico (Burnam et al. , 1987). The study ground that relative to whites, Mexican Americans had fewer animation disorders overall and fewer anxiety and internality use disorders.Like some other findings, Mexican Americans born outside the United States were anchor to have visit prevalence rates of any liveliness disorders than Mexican Americans born in the United States. intercourse to whites, the lifetime prevalence rates did not differ for Puerto Ricans, or for Other Hispanics. However, the sample distribution sizes of the latter two subgroups were quite small, therefrom limiting the statis tical power to receive group differences (Ortega et al. , 2000).A third study examined rates of psychiatric disorders in a large sample of Mexican Americans residing in Fresno County, California (Vega et al. , 1998). This study found that the lifetime rates of mental disorders among Mexican American immigrants born in Mexico were remarkably lower than the rates of mental disorders among Mexican Americans born in the United States. Overall, approximately 25 percent of the Mexican immigrants had some disorder (including both mental disorders and total iniquity), whereas 48 percent of the U. S.-born Mexican Americans had a disorder (Vega et al. , 1998). Furthermore, the length of time that these Latinos had spent in the United States come forthed to be an important factor in the development of mental disorders. Immigrants who had lived in the United States for at least 13 years had higher prevalence rates of disorders than those who had lived in the United States fewer than 13 year s (Vega et al. , 1998). It is interesting to note that the mental disorder prevalence rates of U. S. -born Mexican Americans closely resembled the rates among the widely distributed U.S. population.In contrast, the Mexican-born Fresno residents lower prevalence rates were similar to those found in a Mexico metropolis study (e. g. , for any affective disorder Fresno, 8 %, Mexico City, 9 %) (Caraveo-Anduaga et al. , 1999). Together, the results from the ECA, the NCS, and the Fresno studies suggest that Mexican-born Latinos have better mental health than do U. S. -born Mexican Americans and the national sample overall. A similar pattern has been found in other sets of studies.One study examined the mental health of Mexicans and Mexican Americans who were seen in family practice settings in two towns equidistant from the Mexican border (Hoppe et al. , 1991). This investigation found that 8 percent of the Mexican American participants had undergo a lifetime episode of impression, wher eas only 4 percent of Mexican participants had experience economic crisis. The most striking finding from the set of adult epidemiological studies using diagnostic measures is that Mexican immigrants, Mexican immigrants who lived fewer than 13 years in the United States, or Puerto.Ricans who resided on the island of Puerto Rico had lower prevalence rates of imprint and other disorders than did Mexican Americans who were born in the United States, Mexican immigrants who lived in the United States 13 years or more, or Puerto Ricans who lived on the mainland. This logical pattern of findings across independent investigators, different sites, and two Latino subgroups (Mexican Americans and Puerto Ricans) suggests that factors associated with supporting in the United States are related to an increased risk of mental disorders.Some authors have interpreted these findings as suggesting that finish may lead to an increased risk of mental disorders e. g. , Vega et al. , 1998. The limi tation of this explanation is that none of the far-famed epidemiological studies directly tested whether acculturation and prevalence rates are hence related. At best, place of birth and numbers of years living in the United States are proxy measures of acculturation. However, acculturation is a complex process (LaFromboise et al. , 1993) it is not overhaul what aspect or aspects of acculturation could be related to higher rates of disorders.Is it the changing cultural rates and practices, the stressors associated with such changes, or negative bechances with American institutions (e. g. , schools or employers) that cause some of the different prevalence rates (Betancourt & Lopez, 1993)? Before acculturation can be accepted as an explanation for this observed pattern of findings, it is important that direct tests of specific acculturation processes be carried out and that selection explanations for these findings be ruled out. More seek would be especially helpful in identi fying the key predictors of Latinos mental health and mental nausea.Older Adults Few studies have examined the mental health status of older Hispanic American adults. A study of 703 Los Angeles area Hispanics age 60 or supra found over 26 percent had major drop-off or dysphoria. falling off was related to physical health only 5. 5 percent of those without physical health complications describe feeling (Kemp et al. , 1987). Similar findings associated chronic health conditions and disability with depressive symptoms in a sample of 2,823 older community-dwelling Mexican Americans (Black et al. , 1998).The findings from in-home interviews of 2,723 Mexican Americans age 65 or older in Southwestern communities revealed a blood between low blood insistence and higher levels of depressive symptomatology (Stroup-Benham et al. , 2000). These data are sensibly difficult to interpret. Given the fact that bodied symptoms (e. g. , difficulty kiping and loss of appetite) are related to poor health, these studies could simply document that these somatic symptoms are elevated among older Hispanics who are ill. On the other hand, figurehead of physical illness is also related to depression.Taken together, these findings indicate that older Latin/Hispanics who have health problems may be at risk for depression. Furthermore, a recent study suggests that the risk for Alzheimers infirmity may be higher among Latin/Hispanic Americans than among white Americans (Tang et al. , 1998). Symptoms The early epidemiological studies of Latinos/Hispanics examined the number of symptoms, not the number of mental disorders, inform by groups of Latin/ Hispanic Americans, and in some cases compared them to the number of symptoms reported by white Americans.Much of this research found that Latinos/Hispanics had higher rates of depression or distress than whites Frerichs et al. , 1981. In a large-scale study of Latin/ Hispanics Americans, Cuban Americans (Narrow et al. , 1990) and Mex ican Americans (Moscicki et al. , 1989) were found to have lower rates of depressive symptoms than Puerto Ricans from the New York City metropolitan area Moscicki et al. , 1987 Potter et al. , 1995. In other line of inquiry, Latin/Hispanic American mothers who have children with mental retardation were found to report high levels of depressive symptomatology.It is important to note that measures of symptoms may reflect actual disorders that may not be measured in a given study, as well as general distress associated with social stressors but not necessarily associated with disorders. Two studies provide evidence that depressive symptom indices used with Latinos tend to measure distress more than disorder. In one study, rates of depressive symptoms were found to be similar among poor Puerto Ricans living in New York City and in Puerto Rico (Vera et al. , 1991), even though in the first place analyses indicated different rates of major depression for the two samples Canino et al., 1 987 Moscicki et al. , 1987.In the second study, symptoms of depression were less related to diagnosis of depression for those Hispanics who were economically disadvantaged than for those Hispanics more socially advantaged (Cho et al. , 1993). If an index of depressive symptoms were an indicator of both general distress and disorder, then that index would have been related to a diagnosis of depression for both economically advantaged and disadvantaged samples. Culture-Bound Syndromes DSM-IV recognizes the reality of culturally related syndromes, referred to in the appurtenance of DSM as culture-bound syndromes.Relevant examples of these syndromes for Latin/Hispanic Americans are susto (fright), nervios (nerves), and mal de ojo (evil eye). One expression of distress that is most commonly associated with Caribbean Latinos but has been recognized in other Latinos as well is ataques de nervios (Guarnaccia et al. , 1989). Symptoms of an ataque de nervios include screaming uncontrollably , crying, trembling, and verbal or physical aggression. Dissociative experiences, seizure-like or fainting episodes, and suicidal gestures are also prominent in some ataques.In one study carried out in Puerto Rico, researchers found that 14 percent of the population reported having had ataques (Guarnaccia et al. , 1993). Furthermore, in detailed interviews of 121 individuals living in Puerto Rico (78 of who had had an ataque), experiencing these symptoms was related to major life problems and incidental psychological suffering (Guarnaccia et al. , 1996). There is prize in identifying specific culture-bound syndromes such as ataques de nervios because it is critical to recognize the existence of fantasyions of distress and illness outside traditional psychiatric classification systems.These are often referred to as popular, lay, or common aesthesis conceptions of illness or illness behavior (Koss-Chioino & Canive, 1993). Some of these popular conceptions may have what appear to be definable boundaries, while others are more fluid and cut across a wide range of symptom clusters. For example, many people of Mexican origin apply the more general concept of nervios to distress that is not associated with DSM disorders, as well as to distress that is associated with anxiety disorders, depressive disorders (Salgado de Snyder et al., 2000), and schizophrenia (Jenkins, 1988).Though it is valuable for researchers and clinicians alike to learn about specific culture-bound syndromes, it is more important that they assess variable local representations of illness and distress. The latter approach casts a wider mesh around understanding the role of culture in illness and distress. In the following quote, Koss-Chioino (1992) (page 198) horizontal surfaces out that a given presenting problem can have multiple levels of interlingual rendition the mental health view, the folk improve view (in this case, spiritist), and the patients view.The same woman, during one epis ode of illness, may experience depression in terms of hallucinations, poor or excessive appetite, memory problems, and feelings of somberness or depression, if she presents to a mental health clinic or, alternatively, in terms of backaches, leg aches, and fear, if she attends a Spiritist session. However, she will probably experience headaches, sleep disturbances, and nervousness regardless of the resource she uses. If we encounter her at the mental health clinic, she may explain her distress as due(p) to disordered or out-of-control mind, behavior, or lifestyle.In the Spiritist session she will probably have her distress explained as an obsession. And if we encounter her before she seeks help from both of these treatment resources, she may describe her problems as due to difficulties with her preserve or children. Individuals with Alcohol and Drug Problems Studies have consistently shown that rates of substance annoyance are linked with rates of mental disorders (Kessler et a l. , 1996). Most studies of alcohol use among Hispanics indicate that rates of use are either similar to or slightly below those of whites (Kessler et al. , 1994).However, two factors influence these rates. First, gender differences in rates of Latinos use are often greater than the gender differences observed between whites. Latinas are particularly unlikely to use alcohol or drugs (Gilbert, 1987). In some cases, Latino men are more likely to use substances than white men. For example, in the Los Angeles ECA study, Mexican American men (31 %) had importantly higher rates of alcohol scream and dependence than non-Hispanic white men (21 %). In addition, more alcohol-related problems have been found among Mexican American men than among white men (Cunradi et al., 1999).A second factor associated with Latinos rates of substance misuse is place of birth. In the Fresno study (Vega et al. , 1998), rates of substance abuse were much higher among U. S. -born Mexican Americans compared to Mexican immigrants. Specifically, substance abuse rates were sevener times higher among U. S. -born women compared to immigrant women. For men, the ratio was 2 to 1. U. S. -born Mexican American youth also had higher rates of substance abuse than Mexican-born youth (Swanson et al. , 1992).The study of mental disorders and substance abuse among Latinos suggests two specific types of mediums that Latinos may have. First, as noted, Latino adults who are immigrants have lower prevalence rates of mental disorders than those born in the United States. Among the competing explanations of these findings is that Latino immigrants may be particularly bouncy in the face of the hardships they encounter in settling in a new country. If this is the case, then the identification of what these immigrants do to stretch the likelihood of mental disorders could be of value for all Americans.One of many attainable factors that might contribute to their resilience is what Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-O rozco (1995) refer to as a dual surround of abduce. Investigators found that Latino immigrants in middle-school often used their families back home as reference aims in assessing their lives in the United States. Given that the social and economic conditions are often much worse in their homelands than in the United States, they may experience less distress in use the stressors of their daily lives than those who lack such a basis of comparison.U. S. -born Latinos are more likely to compare themselves with their peers in the United States. Suarez-Orozco and Suarez-Orozco plead that these Latino children are more aware of what they do not have and then may experience more distress. A second factor noted by the Suarez-Orozcos that might be related to the resilience of Latino immigrants is their high aspiration to adopt. oddly noteworthy is that many Latinos want to succeed in order to help their families, kinda than for their own personal benefit.Because the Suarez-Orozcos did not include measures of mental health, it is not certain whether their observations about school achievement apply to mental health. Nevertheless, a dual frame of reference and collective achievement goals are part of a complex set of psychological, cultural, and social factors that may explain why some Latino immigrants function better than Latinos of afterwards generations. A second type of strength noted in the literature is how Latino families be intimate with mental illness.Guarnaccia and colleagues (1992) found that some families draw on their spirituality to cope with a relatives serious mental illness. Strong beliefs in perfection give some family members a sense of hope. For example, in reference to her brothers mental illness, one of the informants commented We all have an invisible doctor that we do not see, no? This doctor is perfection. Always when we go in search of a medicine, we go to a doctor, but we must honor in mind that this doctor is excite by God an d that he will give us something that will help us.We must also keep in mind that who really does the curing is God, and that God can cure us of anything that we have, substantive or spiritual. (p. 206) Jenkins (1988) found that many Mexican Americans attributed their relatives schizophrenia to nervios, a combination of both physical and emotional ailments. An important point here is that nervios implies that the patient is not blameworthy, and therefrom family members are less likely to be critical. Previous studies from largely non-Hispanic samples have found that both family critical review and family blame and criticism together (Lopez et al., 1999) are associated with slip by in patients with schizophrenia.Mexican American families living with a relative who has schizophrenia are not only less likely to be critical, but also those who are communicatory immigrants have been found to be high in warmth. This is important because those patients who returned from a infirmary st ay to a family high in warmth were less likely to relapse than those who returned to families low in warmth. Thus, Mexican American families warmth may help shelter the relative with schizophrenia from relapse.The spirituality of Latino families, their conceptions of mental illness and their warmth all contribute to the support they give in coping with serious mental illness. Although limited, the circumspection given to Latinos possible strengths is an important division to the study of Latino mental health. Strengths are protective factors against distress and disorder and can be used to develop interventions to disallow mental disorders and to promote well-being. Such interventions could be used to inform interventions for all Americans, not just Latinos.In addition, redirecting attention to strengths helps point out the overemphasis researchers and practitioners give to pathology, clinical entities, and treatment, quite than to health, well-being, and prevention. Availabili ty of Mental Health serve Finding mental health treatment from communicatory providers is likely to be a problem for many Spanish-speaking Hispanics. In the 1990 census, about 40 percent of Latinos reported that they either didnt speak side of meat or didnt speak slope well. Thus, a significant proportion of Latinos need.Spanish-speaking mental health care providers. concisely there are no national data to indicate the language skills of the Nations mental health professionals. However, a few studies reveal that there are few Spanish-speaking and Latino providers. One survey of 1,507 school psychologists who carry out psychoeducational assessments of bilingual children in the eight States with the highest percentages of Latinos found that 43 percent of the psychologists identified themselves as English-speaking monolinguals (Ochoa et al. , 1996). In other words, a large number of Engli.